Power Engineering Series

Learning Outcome

When you complete this learning material, you will be able to:

Explain the components and application of safety programs, safety audits, and safety training.

Learning Objectives

You will specifically be able to complete the following tasks:

1. 1. Describe the elements of a comprehensive safety program for a power plant.
2. 2. Explain the purpose of and the process used for safety checklists, inspections, audits and reviews.
3. 3. Explain the purpose of and the process used for safety orientation, education, and training.

Objective 1

Describe the elements of a comprehensive safety program for a power plant.

INTRODUCTION

The health and safety of all persons working at a power plant is of paramount importance. Protecting the health and safety of workers positively affects the reputation of the company. It negatively impacts how all stakeholders, employees, neighbours, media, governments and shareholders perceive the company.

Provision of the necessary safeguards and safety programs generates good health and safety performance: freedom from fatalities, injuries and property damage. This will eliminate the need for the regulatory authority to take legal action.

Implementation of a comprehensive health and safety program requires the commitment of both human and financial resources but it is expected to more than pay for itself. This view is endorsed in a survey of U.S. business executives, “The Executive Survey of Workplace Safety” conducted by the Liberty Mutual Group, the leading provider of workers’ compensation insurance in the U.S.A.

Most business executives reported that workplace safety has a positive impact on a company's financial performance.

Maintaining and improving workplace health and safety takes a lot of work, perseverance and effort. Just like production and quality improvement, it requires a process and a commitment to action on the part of all employees. There are safety proponents who place most of their emphasis on the process while others place emphasis on ensuring the right safety-related behaviour. Both of these major elements are required if exceptional safety performance is to be achieved.

A well-designed health and safety program is a must. It is the only way to control risks. However, the best process in the world is no good if there is unwillingness on the part of employees to follow it through personal action. This commitment is encouraged and achieved if good consultation and communication processes are in place and employees are given the right tools to perform their work safely.

Process and behaviour related safety improvements are not mutually exclusive. A health and safety program includes the elements necessary to obtain commitment to good safety behaviour.

HEALTH AND SAFETY PROGRAMS AND PROCESSES

There are a number of comprehensive health and safety programs or processes available which companies can use as a basis for developing their own programs. Information can be obtained from the following:

• • Provincial workplace insurance boards and safety associations
• • Canadian Centre for Occupational Health & Safety (CCOHS)
• • U.S. Occupational Safety & Health Agency (OSHA)
• • Other safety and standards organizations

The British Standards Institute (BSI) has taken the initiative to adopt a worldwide health and safety management system that is similar in process and functionality to the ISO 9000 quality control standard and to the ISO 14000 environmental management standard. Their BSI - OHSAS 18001: 1999 “Occupational Health and Safety Management System – Specification” is based on the British Standard BS 8800 but is rewritten in a format and in language that is similar to ISO 9000 and ISO 14000. This will ease implementation for companies already accredited to either ISO 9000 or ISO 14000 or both because it allows all the management systems to be integrated.

For a company or facility to develop, implement and maintain a fully functional safety program that adds real value to all onsite individuals requires the following:

• • Commitment from top management
• • Clearly stated health and safety policy
• • Identification of hazards at the workplace
• • Development of processes and procedures to control the risks
• • Effective training of workers to ensure competency
• • Effective incident investigation process
• • Inspection and audit process
• • Emergency response plan

All of these items are critical to the program regardless of the size and nature of the operations. The complexity of the processes used to identify and manage the risks may vary depending on:

• • Size of the facility
• • Number of onsite employees
• • Level of risk

The size, detail, and complexity of each safety program and its support systems depend on the hazards associated with the plant, the risk associated with each hazard, and the potential impact of the hazard on the people and the surrounding environment.

HEALTH AND SAFETY PROGRAM ELEMENTS

For a successful health and safety program, many elements and steps are incorporated.

Health and Safety Policy

An organization's health and safety policy defines the value that it places on health and safety and sets the benchmark against which all decisions that impact health and safety are judged. It is management's responsibility to establish the health and safety policy for the power plant and their participation in the development and approval of the policy is essential. Only top management can ensure that the necessary financial and human resources needed to implement the policy are made available. They must also model the proper actions and behaviours to demonstrate their commitment to, and ownership of, the safety program itself.

The policy, appropriate for the size and nature of the plant, will include commitment to:

• • Establish and maintain a safe and healthful environment
• • Comply with regulatory requirements and other appropriate standards
• • Provide the necessary resources to develop, support, and maintain the program
• • The proactive communication of the policy to all employees
• • A process of continuous improvement
• • The consequences of non-compliance with safety procedures is also considered in the policy

While good safety behaviour by an individual is best achieved through a process of providing information, encouragement, and coaching, there may come a time when disciplinary action is required. It is important and fair that everyone concerned understands the ultimate consequences of non-compliance.

Initial Status Review

When considering improvements or changes to a power plant's health and safety program, it is important to first conduct a "current status review" of the existing safety program and its functionality. The purpose of a current status review is to determine the state of the plant's existing health and safety program to assist in developing a strategy to move forward to reach the mandate of the goals and objectives of the new program.

Many elements of the overall system may already be in place and can be built upon and incorporated into the new, improved health and safety management system. An initial status review determines the following:

• • What elements are already in place
• • What needs to be done
• • What help and information is available
• • What is relevant for the specific plant

When conducting the initial status review, the current health and safety program is compared against all the elements of the desired system.

An initial status review is not required if a comprehensive program and effective audit system is already in place. The results of past audits indicate where there were shortcomings and where improvement is required.

Risk Reduction Process

One of the main tools used for successfully improving health and safety performance is a risk based management system . These programs have three major elements: hazard identification, risk assessment and risk control as shown in Fig. 1.

graph TD; A[Classify Work Areas] --> B[Identify Hazards]; B --> C[Assess Risks]; C --> D[Develop Risk Reduction Plan]; D --> E[Develop & Implement Risk Controls]; E --> F[Assess Outcome]; F --> D;

Figure 1
Risk Reduction Process

Classification of Work Areas

In order to manage the process, it is useful to divide the power plant into a number of work areas e.g. boiler feed water treatment, boilers, electrical generating equipment, and stack emission control.

Hazard Identification

A hazard is a source or situation with a potential for harm in terms of

• • Human injury or ill health
• • Damage to property or the environment
• • A combination of these

Hazard identification is a systematic process used to identify any condition within the workplace that has the potential to cause injury, property damage or environmental impact. Both routine and non-routine activities such as emergencies and shutdown are also considered.

The process used to identify hazards is dependent on the complexity of the operation and the nature of the risks. Job Analysis, the systematic breaking down of a job into single activities, may be required. For complex plants and/or where risks are significant, a full HAZOP (Hazard and Operability) study is considered.

During the hazard identification phase, there is no judgement taken regarding either the likelihood or severity of an incident occurring.

Risk Assessment

Risk is the combination of the consequence(s) and likelihood of a specified hazardous event occurring.

Risk assessment is a systematic process used to assess the risk of all hazards identified during the hazard identification phase. In assessing risk, it is important to use a process that has standard qualifiers that give objective ratings to each hazard to allow for proper response timing. The relative risk of different hazards is sufficient for establishing priorities for risk reduction activities.

Consequences

The consequences or severity of each hazard area are shown in Table 1.

Table 1
Classes of Hazards

Likelihood

The likelihood or probability of each hazardous event occurring should be categorized in a manner similar to the following:

• • Likely
• • Unlikely
• • Highly Unlikely

Risk Reduction Plan

A risk matrix similar to Table 2 can then be used to establish priorities for the development of an organized response strategy.

Table 2
Risk Matrix

The hazards identified using the matrix clearly show where the priorities for action lie.

Risk Controls

Risk controls are developed to reduce hazards to the degree acceptable to the organization by:

• • Attempting to eliminate or remove the risk
• • Developing appropriate procedures to reduce the consequences and/or likelihood
• • Utilizing personal protective equipment as a last resort

Care must be taken that the introduction of a new risk control to address a specific hazard does not, in itself, create a new hazard.

A risk reduction plan is then developed based on the priorities identified and the availability of resources required to implement the corresponding risk controls. This plan is made available to all employees.

Assessing Outcome

After a period of time, (possibly six months), the effectiveness of new controls for the specified risks is assessed and, if necessary, changes made.

The risk reduction plan, which is developed with input and support from plant personnel, is made available to all. It allows everyone to focus on the higher risks and then do something about them.

Progress measured against this plan is monitored. When milestones are achieved, success in furthering health and safety is demonstrated. When milestones are not achieved, corrective action is taken.

Regulatory Requirements

It is important to know whether all legal requirements, such as acts and regulations, concerning occupational health and safety, boilers and pressure vessels, power engineering and any other applicable regulations, are known and complied with. If not, action to bring the power plant operations into compliance is taken. Procedures to remain current with these requirements are put in place.

Health and Safety Objectives and Plan

To continually improve health and safety performance requires the establishment of annual measurable health and safety objectives.

These objectives support the health and safety policy and address:

• • Initial status review findings
• • Priorities identified as a result of the risk reduction process
• • Any non compliance with regulatory requirements
• • Findings from an analysis of past incidents and non-conformances
• • Recommendations of the health and safety committee

The objectives are clear, measurable, and articulate the desired outcome. Both the name of the person accountable for achieving the objective and the targeted completion date are stated.

Based on the health and safety objectives, a detailed implementation plan is developed. The plan outlines the actions required and identifies the resources used to achieve each objective. Again, the accountability for each action and the targeted completion date are shown.

Health and safety objectives or goals are included in the yearly performance review strategies for all employees. Their importance needs to be stressed. They are not seen as something separate from or of lesser importance than other goals such as production or costs.

The goals support the achievement of the health and safety objectives, plans and the continuous improvement of health and safety performance. Individual objectives are different for every employee depending on their role and the nature of their job.

They may be project related such as researching alternative boiler feedwater treatment processes that eliminate the use of hazardous chemicals or reviewing and improving the plant's incident investigation procedure. Alternatively, they may be behaviour related such as improvement in the wearing of hearing protection in designated areas.

Roles and Responsibilities

Every person has a responsibility to act at all times in a way that does not jeopardize either their own safety or health nor put their co-workers or others at risk. They are held accountable for complying with all procedures and rules and the requirements

of the health and safety program. This includes submitting incident and non-conformance reports such as deviations from required procedures.

However, ultimate responsibility for health and safety rests with management. Top management sets the policy and provides the resources essential for the implementation, control and improvement of the health and safety program.

All those with management responsibilities provide leadership and demonstrate their commitment to the continuous improvement of health and safety performance. They personally demonstrate good safety behaviour and are persuasive in encouraging good safety behaviour on the part of their employees. They explain the importance of the requirements when transgressions are noted.

General accountability for health and safety such as compliance with the plant's health and safety procedures, working in a safe manner, and identifying risks are written into all job descriptions. In addition, specific accountability for defined health and safety activities such as incident investigations and emergency response are also included in job descriptions, where appropriate.

Training, Awareness and Competence

Personnel must be competent to perform tasks that may impact on health and safety in the workplace. To achieve this, competency requirements for individual roles are identified, training needs are analyzed and training programs are identified.

This aspect of the health and safety program is described in more detail under the third learning objective in this module.

CONSULTATION AND COMMUNICATION

Reduction of injuries, plant disruption and property damage are only achieved if all employees are fully engaged. Generally, employees support and follow requirements that they understand, that they believe to be important, that they believe are appropriate and that they play a part in developing.

Plant management establishes effective consultation and communication processes that encourage participation in good health and safety practices and support for health and safety policies and objectives.

It is important that the front line engineers' knowledge and experience of the day-to-day operations is fully considered when decisions impacting health and safety are taken.

Consultation

Most health and safety legislation suggests that a health and safety committee be established. Depending on the jurisdiction, members of the committee participate in a numbers of functions:

• • Assist in creating a safe workplace

• • Participate in identifying hazards and making recommendations for controlling these hazards
• • Search for new information on health and safety issues in the workplace
• • Promote health and safety programs that educate and inform team members
• • Review and investigate reports or concerns about health and safety and make recommendations where necessary
• • Participate in health and safety inspections and incident investigations
• • Make recommendations that establish, enforce, or improve the effectiveness of the occupational health and safety program

While the health and safety committee is the prime conduit for health and safety consultation, it should not be the only one. Opportunities are found to allow other staff to participate in health and safety related projects which builds commitment through involvement and brings other views to the table.

Communication

Formal training programs are designed and implemented (discussed more fully under the third objective of this module). One time or infrequent formal training is insufficient to make health and safety practices second nature. The lessons must be reinforced on an ongoing basis.

This is accomplished in the following ways:

• • Work crew health and safety meetings led by the supervisor with support from health and safety committee member and including a review of a safety topic of the month
• • Health and safety updates, bulletins from management and/or health and safety advisor
• • Periodic health and safety briefings from management, preferably verbal, highlighting the state of health and safety in the plant, achievements and shortcomings of the program.

Operational Control (Safety) Procedures

Operational control procedures are written to control risks identified during the risk identification process.

Operational control procedures are applicable to the entire power plant. They should not be confused with detailed operating and maintenance instructions that are only applicable to certain parts of the plant or operations. However, they are complementary to and not separate from the detailed work instructions as can be seen from Fig. 2.

Figure 2
Safety Program

Examples of appropriate operational control procedures for a power plant are:

• • Purchasing procedures - requirement to meet material standards
• • Hazardous task procedures - safe work practices and lockout, tagging, confined space entry and use of personal protective equipment
• • Hazardous material handling procedures - hazardous material storage and handling and WHMIS (Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System)
• • Maintenance procedures - inspection and testing of protection systems
• • Engineering procedures - plant modifications

Document and Data Control

The health and safety program needs to be documented and made available to all employees. Changes to the program are tracked and controlled and no changes are made unless authorized.

Records are kept to demonstrate that the health and safety system operates effectively and that all operations have been carried out under safe conditions. These records include:

• • Training records
• • Health and safety inspection reports
• • Health and safety management system audit reports
• • Consultation reports
• • Incident reports
• • Health and safety committee meeting minutes
• • Medical test reports
• • Health surveillance reports
• • PPE issues and PPE maintenance records
• • Reports on Emergency Response drills
• • Risk management system audits and progress reports

Emergency Preparedness and Response Plan

Every plant assesses potential major incident and emergency situations and develops an appropriate emergency response plan. Examples of such events include fires and explosions, ruptures, fuel spills, and gas escapes. The plan must include such aspects as:

• • Identification of different emergencies
• • Alarm systems and emergency equipment
• • The make up and duties of the emergency response team
• • What action persons not involved in the emergency should take
• • Emergency escape routes and assembly points
• • Identification of, role of, and liaison with local emergency services
• • Regulatory and corporate reporting requirements
• • Responsibility for media liaison

Practice drills are held periodically to test the plans. The success of the drills is reviewed and any necessary changes made to the plan.

Incident and Non-conformance Reporting and Investigation

Organizations have an effective process for reporting, investigating incidents and non-conformances with safety requirements.

Incidents include both near misses and occurrences of personal injury or equipment damage. Because they can almost always be avoided serious incidents are rarely accidental. For this reason, they are not called accidents in this module.

The primary purpose of these investigative procedures is to prevent further occurrences of the situation by identifying and dealing with the root causes. In addition, an effective procedure allows legal requirements for reporting of incidents and injuries to be met. Fatalities and serious injuries can be avoided if action is taken to address the underlying causes of non-conformances and incidents. This relationship is shown in Fig. 3.

Figure 3
Accidents, Injuries, Incident & Non-conformances

The process includes procedures for:

• • Reporting and investigating incidents and non-conformances
• • Identification of actions to be taken to avoid reoccurrence of the risk
• • Initiation and completion of corrective and preventive actions
• • Confirmation of the effectiveness of corrective and preventive actions taken

A monitoring system is used to ensure that each incident and non-conformance is investigated and the identified corrective action tracked to completion.

Performance Monitoring, Inspection and Auditing

Procedures are put in place to monitor, measure and track health and safety performance, conformance with processes, procedures and instructions, and progress against health and safety goals and objectives.

Measurement indicates:

• • What is and is not working
• • Where the priorities lie
• • Where changes to the health and safety management system and procedures are necessary

Continuous improvement can only be achieved with this information. Effective performance monitoring comprises both reactive and proactive measures.

Examples of reactive measures are:

• • Reported unsafe acts and conditions
• • Tracking the number of lost time injuries and near misses
• • Regulatory agency enforcement action

Examples of proactive measures are:

• • Monitoring the progress being made on achieving the overall plant health and safety objectives;
• • Observing and recording compliance with procedures e.g. wearing of protective equipment
• • Auditing the effectiveness of incident and non-compliance investigations and follow-up
• • Workplace environmental measurements e.g. noise and dust
• • Monitoring the frequency and effectiveness of plant safety meetings

Checklists, plant inspections, and health and safety audits are the major tools for proactive monitoring. This aspect of the health and safety program is described in more detail in the second learning objective of this module.

Objective 2

Explain the purpose of and the process used for safety checklists, inspections, audits and reviews.

Checklists, inspections, audits and reviews are used to control and measure safety performance in a plant and to establish trends that identify how well the health and safety management system is operating. They are proactive instruments that confirm compliance and provide plant management and employees with information which they can use to prevent incidents.

SAFETY CHECKLISTS

A checklist is a standard series of observations or actions that can be checked off if the applicable observation has been made or the applicable action taken. A checklist acts as both a memory prompter and a recording document. Power engineers use checklists to record their findings and actions taken during the shift schedule.

The results of the checklists may be used to initiate corrective action e.g. a maintenance work order. They can also be used to track results or provide evidence of the results of the safety procedures.

Examples of checklists commonly used include:

• • Testing of emergency equipment - emergency alarm, fire pumps, emergency shower
• • Housekeeping
• • Calibration of measuring equipment - explosimeter, oxygen meter
• • Testing of shutdown devices

SAFETY INSPECTIONS

Supervisors use facility safety inspections to determine that the required measures to control hazards in their area of responsibility are performed on an ongoing basis. Such inspections are conducted on a scheduled basis, usually weekly.

Deficiencies and non-conformances are noted, documented and shared with everyone in the work unit. Action must be taken to correct the deficiencies.

Many supervisors choose to form a team to carry out the inspection. Members of the team include an employee health and safety committee member and/or a representative from maintenance. Frequently, the supervisor leads the team. This leadership responsibility is not delegated as it underlines the importance that the supervisor places on safety. Furthermore, supervisors are legally responsible to make sure that everything reasonable is done to protect the health and safety of the workers.

At program introduction and periodically thereafter, a more comprehensive inspection is conducted. Fig. 4 is an example of a comprehensive inspection form for a typical manufacturing facility. A list like this can be used to develop an inspection form specific to the particular plant.

Copyright ©1997-2003 Canadian Centre for Occupational Health & Safety

Figure 4
Typical Manufacturing Inspection Checklist

SAFETY AUDITS

The purpose of safety audits is to evaluate the effectiveness of each element of the overall health and safety program. Safety audits do not take the place of the regular facility safety inspections whose purpose is to confirm that specific hazards are under control.

Rather than conducting a single annual audit, it is preferable to conduct sub-audits of different elements of the health and safety management process or program throughout the year. Conducting only a single annual safety audit of the whole system may actually hide the facts. The single annual audit approach may tend to create a safety "ramp up" effect, by managers and supervisors, as the audit time approaches. Sub-audits also facilitate continuous improvement as resulting requirements for action to correct deficiencies and improve processes do not all come at one time but are spread throughout the year.

Personnel, not directly responsible for the activity being examined, conduct the audits. These auditors should be familiar with both the company health and safety program and applicable regulatory requirements. They should be impartial and objective and have received training in how to conduct effective audits.

What the Audit Answers

The persons or team designated to conduct the audits takes a fact-finding approach to gathering data. All audit comments, recommendations and corrective actions focus on five questions:

1. 1. Does the program cover all regulatory and best industry practice requirements?
2. 2. Has the program been properly implemented and maintained?
3. 3. Is there documented proof of compliance?
4. 4. Is the program addressing the priority areas of risk?
5. 5. Is the plant's health and safety plan being achieved?

Depending on the subject of the audit, the following areas are examined:

• • Employee knowledge
• • Written program review
• • Program administration
• • Record & document review
• • Equipment & material
• • General area walk-through

Employee Knowledge

Health and safety standards require "effective training." An effective program ensures that employees have the knowledge required to operate in a safe manner on a daily basis. The level of knowledge required depends on the specific activities, duties and responsibilities in which the employee is involved. Determining an employee's level of knowledge is achieved through written quizzes, formal interviews or informal questions in the workplace.

Written Program Review

During the audit, a comprehensive review of the written program is conducted. This review compares the plant program to requirements for hazard identification and control, required employee training and record keeping as required by the government.

Program Administration

This review checks the implementation and management of specific program requirements. This portion of the audit determines whether the program is being administrated effectively.

Record & Document Review

Records are usually the plant's only means of proving that specific regulatory requirements have been met. The results, recommendations and corrective actions from the previous program audits are reviewed in order to determine whether there has been continuous improvement.

Equipment and Material

This area of an audit reviews the processes that are in place to ensure operability of the equipment and the integrity of materials. In particular, the processes used to confirm the correct operation of hazard control systems must be confirmed to be effective.

General Area Walk-Through

While audits are not designed to be comprehensive physical wall-to-wall facility inspections, a general walk-through of work areas provides additional insight into the effectiveness of safety programs. Auditors take written notes of unsafe conditions and unsafe acts observed during the walk-through. They talk to the people doing the work and ask specific questions.

Planning for the Audit

Planning for an audit involves:

• • Establishing and providing the scope of the audit a few days before the audit
• • Ensuring that the members of the audit team are knowledgeable and competent to carry out the audit
• • Planning the fact gathering (questions, checklists, sample size etc.)
• • Ensuring that the results of past audits are available

Review of Findings and Recommendations

After all documents, written programs, procedures, work practices and equipment have been reviewed, the audit team formulates a concise report that details all areas of the program focusing on the five basic questions mentioned in “What The Audit Answers”. Each program requirement is addressed, deficiencies noted, and recommendations for improvement presented.

Publishing Results

It is essential to advise all supervisors and managers of the basic findings and recommendations and to recognize the personnel accomplishments.

Follow-up Action

Appropriate action(s) to implement each recommendation of the audit is developed. These actions are incorporated into the plant’s health and safety plan together with target dates and accountability. If any recommendation is rejected, the reasons for the rejection need to be properly documented.

ANNUAL SAFETY REVIEW

The Annual Safety Review, sometimes called a Management Review, has a more strategic focus than the monthly audits. The monthly audits focus on whether the system, as designed, is working properly. The Annual Safety Review examines the adequacy, effectiveness and suitability of the program taking into account the organization’s overall business objectives and external as well as internal factors.

Top management conducts the Annual Safety Review and addresses the possible need for changes to policies and objectives in the light of changing circumstances and the commitment to continuous improvement.

Top management reviews the operation of the health and safety management system to assess whether it is being fully implemented and remains suitable for achieving the organization’s stated health and safety policies and objectives.

The Annual Safety review establishes new or updated objectives for continuous improvement appropriate for the upcoming period. Management considers whether or not changes are required to the health and safety management system. Appropriate resources are included in the applicable budget(s).

Objective 3

Explain the purpose of and the process used for safety orientation, education, and training.

The successful implementation of an occupational health and safety program is dependent on the effective delivery of information and knowledge through focused and timely training. A health and safety program, however well designed and documented, is only effective if all employees are aware and understand the need for it.

Every plant should have a training program that recognizes the training needs of all persons and all levels in the organization. Supervision and management, who by their leadership and example are fundamental to the success of the program, also require training in safety leadership, communication, coaching and the constructive enforcement of safety programs.

SAFETY ORIENTATION

Contractors, temporary workers and visitors also require training. Procurement contracts for contractors include training requirements and this aspect of contract compliance is audited. The training includes any specific requirements for the plant. Because this can be critical to safe operation, many plants provide safety orientation/training to all contract personnel before they are allowed to work on-site.

EDUCATION

There are many stages associated with implementing an effective training program, as shown in Fig. 5.

graph TD; A[Assess Needs] --> B[Assess Priorities]; B --> C[Design Training]; C --> D[Deliver Training]; D --> E[Reinforce Learnings]; E --> F[Evaluate Effectiveness]; F --> A;

Figure 5
H & S Training Programs

Assess Needs

The first step in the process is a training needs analysis. The competencies required of each position in the organization are established. It must be determined what it is that the person must know and what skills are required to properly and safely perform their duties.

Safety competencies are not separate from day-to-day operation. Competence in plant operation is the number one safety competency. Safety will not be achieved if the operators are not competent to operate the plant.

Reference is made to the hazards and risks identified as part of the risk reduction process. In many cases, training is identified as a risk control. If necessary, a task analysis, the systematic breakdown of a task into steps, is undertaken in order to establish the skills necessary and the potential hazards of the task. Results of incident investigations and evidence of non-conformances with processes and procedures may also highlight training needs.

In particular, it is important to include any training requirements that are required by legislation or regulation such as WHMIS (Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System).

Assess Priorities

All employees are entitled to know as much as possible about the health and safety hazards to which they are exposed. Employers decide who is in the greatest need of

information and instruction and on what aspects. Reference can be made to the plant's Risk Management Program. The highest priority for training is where the highest areas of risk occur and where training has been identified as a risk control.

The employees themselves can also provide valuable information on training priorities. Health and safety training needs can be identified through the employees' responses to such questions as whether anything about their jobs concerns them, if they have had any near-miss incidents or if they feel they are taking risks.

Design Training

Training programs need to have clear objectives and the means of assessing their effectiveness. Training programs are relevant to the plant in question and focused on the plant's specific needs.

An understanding of the current level of competence is essential. This avoids unnecessary training and tailors the training to meet the needs of the employees.

Use can be made of professionally produced videos and other materials that attract the attention of and engage the participant. However, care must be taken to avoid off the shelf solutions that bear little relevance to the operation. In all cases, off the shelf material must be followed up by a discussion that uses specific plant examples to reinforce the learning.

The training design includes mechanisms such as:

• • Quizzes and demonstrations to check whether the knowledge has been acquired
• • Provision of relevant handout materials
• • Ways to reinforce the learning developed

Deliver Training

The following methods are used to deliver training:

• • Classroom
• • On-the-job
• • Computer based

Classroom Training

When classroom training is used, special care must be taken to ensure that the person delivering the training is not only competent but is also an effective training facilitator. This person needs to be able to engage the participants in effective discussion and draw on real world experiences. The ideal person is a plant employee who is knowledgeable in the subject area and an effective trainer.

As indicated earlier, a good understanding of the current knowledge and competence of the potential participants is essential. In cases where it is impossible to avoid a gap in knowledge, the personal experience of the knowledgeable should, wherever possible, be used to reinforce the learning.

On-The-Job Training

On-the-job training is particularly useful where practical skills have to be learned. However, care must be taken to ensure that the person is trained correctly. The correct way of performing the task is documented and the person doing the training receives coaching or instruction in effective on-the-job training methods. A check off system is used to document that the trainee has properly performed the task.

Computer Based Training

Computer Based Training (CBT) is an interactive learning experience between the learner and a computer in which the computer provides the majority of the stimulus. The learner responds and the computer then analyzes the response and provides feedback to the learner. There is a record keeping feature that can save time, maintain accurate training records and diagnose training deficiencies.

CBT Advantages

Computer-based training has the following advantages:

• • CBT is the most cost- effective way to train for companies that have facilities on a national or even international scale. Training employees by the conventional means (classroom instruction) requires that the company pay high travel expense costs for the trainer
• • CBT is very flexible in that it does not interrupt the trainees' work schedules to train them. CBT optimizes the time available for training, and affords flexibility since training can be taken by most employees on a 24 hr. basis without leaving the work site
• • CBT is self-paced instructional program that allows for mastery of the material because time is not a constant

CBT Disadvantages

Computer-based training has the following disadvantages:

• • CBT does not allow for real-time training
• • CBT type of training lacks the face to face contact that classroom instruction allows. Without the face to face with the instructor, the trainee cannot have their questions answered on the spot when they need help

Reinforce Learning

It is also important to recognize that training is not a one time event. Research shows that learning is only achieved when the subject matter is repeated and reinforced over time. Formal training has its place but ongoing reinforcement is essential if the lessons are to be truly learned.

Posters or other reminders that highlight the key learning points are used. Follow-up quizzes that are returned to the trainer are also useful.

One of the best methods is to have the topic included on the agenda of the next shift safety meeting. This allows the topic to be reviewed and discussed in a small, familiar group where people are more likely to voice their opinions and ask questions.

Evaluate Effectiveness

It is important to check that the information provided is not only absorbed and understood at the time of training but also retained over time. Again, this can be done through follow-up quizzes or discussions.

More importantly, it is essential to know whether the training provided has achieved the desired objective. Has the number of incidents due to a particular cause decreased? Has compliance with the targeted procedure improved? Negative results may dictate redesign of the training program or re-evaluation of the appropriateness of training as the risk control.

Continuous Improvement

Like other programs and processes, continuous improvement of the training program over time is required. Training programs may not effectively deliver on their objectives, new hazards may be identified, new methods may be introduced or new technology may become available. In all cases, the training program is updated to ensure that it remains relevant and effective.

TRAINING OF NEW EMPLOYEES

New employees require special consideration. Their health and safety orientation is carefully designed. They know the basic safety rules before starting work within the plant. They understand the:

• • Nature of the hazards in the plant
• • Significance of the risk
• • Importance of personal protective equipment
• • Where they may/may not go
• • What they can/cannot do

Further learning is provided over time as their operational training progresses. This can be either in the classroom or on-the-job as dictated by the design of the overall plant training program. Proper and safe performance of the task is always demonstrated before the trainee is authorized to perform the task on their own.

Periodic Health and Safety Training

Some worksites experience fairly frequent occupational injuries and illnesses. At such sites, it is especially important that employees receive periodic health and safety training to refresh their memories and to teach new methods of control. New training may also be necessary when regulatory or industry standards require it or industry practices are revised.

One-on-one training is often the most effective training method. The supervisor periodically spends some time watching an individual employee work. Then the supervisor meets with the employee to discuss safe work practices, bestow credit for safe work, and provide additional instruction to counteract any observed unsafe practices. One-on-one training is most effective when applied to all employees under supervision and not just those with whom there appears to be a problem. Positive feedback given for safe work practices is a powerful tool. It helps employees establish safe behavior patterns and recognizes, and thereby reinforces, the desired behavior.

Evaluations

Evaluations help to determine whether the training has achieved its goal of improving the employees' safety performance. Various means of evaluating a training program include:

• • Before training begins, observe employees and solicit their opinions to determine what areas need improvement. When training ends, test for

improvement. Ask employees to explain their jobs' hazards, protective measures, and test new skills and knowledge

• • Keep track of employee attendance at training sessions
• • At the end of the training, ask participants to rate the course and the trainer
• • Compare pre- and post-training injury and incident rates, near misses and percent safe behaviour exhibited

Chapter Questions

A1.7

1. 1. Explain the difference between a hazard and a risk.
2. 2. What is the purpose of an Initial Status Review?
3. 3. Why is the involvement of top management in the safety & health program essential?
4. 4. Explain the purpose of operational controls and their relationship to power plant work instructions?
5. 5. Compare the purposes of safety checklists, safety inspections and safety audits.
6. 6. Explain the relationship between the plant's risk reduction plan and its safety training program.
7. 7. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of computer based training.